The History Of International Cybersecurity Politics Essay

The History Of International Cybersecurity Politics Essay The United States, England, and Continental Europe have very different approaches to cybersecurity. The United States and United Kingdom conceive of cyber primarily as a national security problem to be handled by the military- which in turn sees the Internet as a fifth domain of war to be dominated. The rest of the European Union, however, sees cyber threats mostly as an irritant for commerce and individual privacy that should be dealt with by civilian authorities working in combination with private enterprise. Additionally, while the United States can have a single policy, even though its one implemented by many different federal departments, the European Union is made up of twenty-seven nations with their own laws, notions, and philosophical differences over how to approach cyber issues. Finally, there is NATO, where a unified transatlantic cyber vision must be reconciled and arranged in a coherent manner among twenty-eight allies through a cumbersome bureaucratic process. To make sense of these conflicting visions, this essay reviews cyber attacks against NATO members, attempts to outline the challenges of developing a transatlantic vision for cyber policy, and highlights some of the fundamental differences among NATO members. It is helpful to remember that although the Internet is so ensconced in most of our lives that it is hard to envision living without it, the first modern Web browser didnt debut until 1993 and broadband access has only become widespread over the last decade. As a result, senior government and military leaders did not grow up with the Internet and are gradually having to adapt to emerging cyber realities. Franklin Kramer, who worked as assistant secretary of defense under President Bill Clinton, draws a comparison with the Great Fire of London, he notes that it nearly destroyed the city in 1666 because an advance in living conditions- wooden houses for many- was not matched by security measures. There were no firefighting technologies, no firefighting processes, and no resources devoted to fire fighting. This was still true more than two centuries later with the Great Chicago Fire. Despite our slow learning curve, in the modern world, while fire may strike, it is not the city-devourin g scourge that it once was. Through government regulations that established building codes and through volunteer and government-run fire departments, a protective-response was established over the centuries.  [1]   Former Deputy Secretary of Defense William J. Lynn III uses a more aggressive analogy: The first military aircraft was bought, I think, in 1908, somewhere around there. So were in about 1928, he said. Weve kind of seen some à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ biplanes shoot at each other over France, he added. But we havent really seen kind of what a true cyberconflict is going to look like.  [2]   Currently, European policymakers seem to treat cybersecurity more along fire-prevention lines rather than as biplanes over France. And framing is critical when thinking about cyber issues. As Kramer observes, Ask the wrong question, and you generally will get the wrong answer. And cyber- and what to do about cyber conflict- is an arena where there is generally no agreement on what is the question, certainly no agreement on what are the answers, and evolving so fast that questions are transmuted and affect and change the validity of answers that have been given. He argues that the lack of agreement over the nature of the problem, lack of coherent regulation and authority mechanisms, and conflict between connectivity and security together make cyber a wicked problem not easily susceptible to resolution.  [3]   Lynn manages to frame the issue in military and security terms but fully acknowledges that the reality is quite blurred and that no clear lines exist in this new domain. I mean, clearly if you take down significant portions of our economy we would probably consider that an attack. But an intrusion stealing data, on the other hand, probably isnt an attack. And there are [an] enormous number of steps in between those two.  [4]   Lynn goes on to say, one of the challenges facing Pentagon strategists is deciding at what threshold do you consider something an attackà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I think the policy community both inside and outside the government is wrestling with that, and I dont think weve wrestled it to the ground yet. In other words, it is difficult to know whether the house is on fire or biplanes are shooting at each other.  [5]   Correspondingly tricky, defense officials say, is how to pinpoint who is doing the attacking. This raises further complications that are clearly at the heart of the Pentagons mission. At the Council on Foreign Relations Lynn summarized the issue If you dont know who to attribute an attack to, you cant retaliate against that attack, As a result, you cant deter through punishment, you cant deter by retaliating against the attack. He discussed the complexities that make cyberwar so different from, say, nuclear missiles, which of course come with a return address.  [6]   The cyber threat is very much a part of our current reality. Over the last several years several NATO members and partners, including the United States, have been targeted by severe cyber attacks. Estonia What is commonly believed to be the first known case of one state targeting another by cyber-warfare began on April 27, 2007, when a massive denial-of-service attack was launched by Russia against Estonia over a dispute involving a statue. The attack crippled websites of government ministries, political parties, newspapers, banks, and companies.  [7]  The attack was nicknamed Web War One and it caused a resonation within transatlantic national security circles.  [8]   The German newspaper Deutsche Welle wrote that Estonia is particularly vulnerable to cyber attacks because it is one of the most wired countries in the world. Nearly everyone in Estonia conducts banking and other daily activities on line. So when the cyber attack occurred, it nearly shut Estonia down.  [9]  Then-EU Information Society and Media commissioner Viviane Reding called the attacks a wakeup call, commenting that if people do not understand the urgency now, they never will. Her reaction was to incorporate a response into an EU-wide law on identity theft over the Internet.  [10]  Additionally, NATO did establish a Cyber Center of Excellence in Tallinn, which will be discussed later in the essay. Georgia While not a NATO member, Georgia is a NATO partner, and the April 2008 Bucharest Summit declared that it will become a member at some unspecified time in the future, a promise reiterated at the November 2010 Lisbon Summit.  [11]  Weeks before the August 2008 Russian land invasion and air attack, Georgia was subject to an extensive, coordinated cyber attack. American experts estimated that the attacks against Georgias Internet infrastructure began as early as July 20, with coordinated barrages of millions of requests- known as distributed denial of service, or DDOS, attacks- that overloaded and effectively shut down Georgian servers.  [12]  The pressure was intensified during the early days of the war, effectively shutting down critical communications in Georgia. After defacing Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvilis web site and integrating a slideshow portraying Saakashvili as Hitler, coming up with identical images of both Saakashvili and Hitlers public appearances, the site remained under a sustained DDoS attack. Writing as the attacks were under way, security consultant Dancho Danchev believed it smells like a three letter intelligence agencys propaganda arm has managed to somehow supply the creative for the defacement of Georgia Presidents official web site, thereby forgetting a simple rule of engagement in such a conflict- risk forwarding the responsibility of the attack to each and every Russian or Russian supporter that ever attacked Georgian sites using publicly obtainable DDOS attack tools in a coordinated fashion.  [13]  Bill Woodcock, the research director at Packet Clearing House, a California-based nonprofit group that tracks Internet security trends, noted that the attacks represented a landmark: the first use of a cyber a ttack in conjunction with an armed military invasion.  [14]   The nature of cyber attacks is such that, two and a half years later, there is still no definitive answer on who caused the attack. They certainly emanated from Russia, but the precise role of Moscows military and intelligence services remains unclear. Given that the cyber attacks preceded and accompanied conventional military attacks, there appears to be a link to the Russian government. A March 2009 report by Greylogic concluded Russias Foreign Military Intelligence agency (the GRU) and Federal Security Service (the FSB), rather than patriotic hackers, were likely to have played a key role in coordinating and organizing the attacks. They added, The available evidence supports a strong likelihood of GRU/ FSB planning and direction at a high level while relying on Nashi intermediaries and the phenomenon of crowd-sourcing to obfuscate their involvement and implement their strategy.  [15]   United States In a 2010 essay for Foreign Affairs, Lynn revealed that in 2008, the US Department of Defense suffered a significant compromise of its classified military computer networks. It began when an infected flash drive was inserted into a US military laptop at a base in the Middle East. The flash drives malicious computer code, placed there by a foreign intelligence agency, uploaded itself onto a network run by the US Central Command. That code spread undetected on both classified and unclassified systems, establishing what amounted to a digital beachhead, from which data could be transferred to servers under foreign control.  [16]   The upshot is that adversaries have acquired thousands of files from US networks and from the networks of US allies and industry partners, including weapons blueprints, operational plans, and surveillance data.  [17]   Lynn classified this attack as the most significant breach of US military computers ever and stated that it served as an important wake-up call.  [18]  He acknowledged that to that point, we did not think our classified networks could be penetrated.  [19]  The result of this new awareness was Operation Buckshot Yankee, a fourteen-month program that rid US systems of the agent.btz worm and helped lead to a major reorganization of the armed forces information defenses, including the creation of the militarys new Cyber Command.  [20]   United Kingdom In a speech at the 2011 Munich Security Conference, British foreign secretary William Hague revealed that a series of cyber attacks on his country took place the previous year. He noted that in late December a spoofed email purporting to be from the White House was sent to a large number of international recipients who were directed to click on a link that then downloaded a variant of ZEUS. The UK Government was targeted in this attack and a large number of emails bypassed some of our filters.  [21]   Additionally, sometime in 2010 the national security interests of the UK were targeted in a deliberate attack on our defense industry. A malicious file posing as a report on a nuclear Trident missile was sent to a defense contractor by someone masquerading as an employee of another defense contractor. Good protective security meant that the email was detected and blocked, but its purpose was undoubtedly to steal information relating to our most sensitive defense projects.  [22]   Finally, in February 2011, three of my staff were sent an email, apparently from a British colleague outside the FCO, working on their region. The email claimed to be about a forthcoming visit to the region and looked quite innocent. In fact it was from a hostile state intelligence agency and contained computer code embedded in the attached document that would have attacked their machine. Luckily, our systems identified it and stopped it from ever reaching my staff.  [23]  Still, the prevalence and sophistication of these attacks are a principal reason why cybersecurity and cyber-crime were listed as two of the top five priorities in the UKs National Security Strategy.  [24]   Given the interconnectivity of the Internet, Hague argued that more comprehensive international collaboration is vital, noting that, while cyber security is on the agendas of some 30 multilateral organizations, from the UN to the OSCE and the G8, the problem is that much of this debate is fragmented and lacks focus. He continued, We believe there is a need for a more comprehensive, structured dialogue to begin to build consensus among like-minded countries and to lay the basis for agreement on a set of standards on how countries should act in cyberspace.  [25]   US- European Attitudinal Differences We begin to be able to discern a pattern: The United States and the United Kingdom take cyber security very seriously and view it primarily through the lens of national security. The EU and most Western European members of NATO see it primarily as a national infrastructure problem. In the run-up to the November 2010 Lisbon NATO Summit, Pentagon officials were pressing very firmly to incorporate a concept of active cyber defense into the revised NATO Strategic Concept. Lynn argued that the Cold War concepts of shared warning apply in the 21st century to cyber security. Just as our air defenses, our missile defenses have been linked so too do our cyber defenses need to be linked as well. However, this notion was firmly rejected by the Europeans, with the French particularly adamant.  [26]   USCYBERCOM A July 2010 Economist story proclaimed: After land, sea, air and space, warfare has entered the fifth domain: cyberspace.  [27]  It noted that President Obama had declared the digital infrastructure a strategic national asset and had appointed Howard Schmidt, the former head of security at Microsoft, as the first cybersecurity tsar. Peter Coates notes that the air force had actually anticipated this move in December 2005, declaring cyber a fifth domain when it changed its mission statement to To fly and fight in air, space, and cyberspace. In November of the following year, it redesignated the 8th Air Force to become Air Force Cyberspace Command.  [28]   In May 2010 the Defense Department launched a new subunified command, United States Cyber Command, with Gen. Keith Alexander dual-hatted as its chief while continuing on as director of the National Security Agency. CYBERCOM is charged with the responsibility to direct the operations and defense of specified Department of Defense information networks and prepare to, and when directed, conduct full spectrum military cyberspace operations in order to enable actions in all domains, ensure US/ Allied freedom of action in cyberspace and deny the same to our adversaries.  [29]   As the scale of cyberwarfares threat to US national security and the US economy has come into view, the Pentagon has built layered and robust defenses around military networks and inaugurated the new US Cyber Command to integrate cyber-defense operations across the military. The Pentagon is now working with the Department of Homeland Security to protect government networks and critical infrastructure and with the United States closest allies to expand these defenses internationally. An enormous amount of foundational work remains, but the US government has begun putting in place various initiatives to defend the United States in the digital age.  [30]  Even with stepped-up vigilance and resources, Lynn admits, adversaries have acquired thousands of files from US networks and from the networks of US allies and industry partners, including weapons blueprints, operational plans, and surveillance data.  [31]   The cyber policy of the United States is rapidly evolving, with major developments under way even as I write this essay. The White House issued a new International Strategy for Cyberspace in May 2011. While not by any means moving away from a defense-oriented posture- indeed, it generated breathless commentary by declaring the right to meet cyber attacks with a kinetic response- it sought to bring commercial, individual, diplomatic, and other interests into the equation. This was followed by a new Department of Defense cyber strategy in July 2011, which built on Lynns Foreign Affairs essay. European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) While CYBERCOM is the most powerful and well-funded US cyber agency, the lead EU cyber agency is ENISA, the European Network and Information Security Agency. Whereas CYBERCOM is run by a general with an intelligence background, ENISA is run by a physics professor with long experience in the IT sector, including the energy industry, insurance company engineering, aviation, defense, and space industry.  [32]  The agencys mission is to develop a culture of Network and Information Security for the benefit of citizens, consumers, business and public sector organizations in the European Union.  [33]   In December 2010 ENISA released a report identifying what it sees as the top security risks and opportunities of smartphone use and gives security advice for businesses, consumers and governments. The agency considers spyware, poor data cleansing when recycling phones, accidental data leakage, and unauthorized premium-rate phone calls and SMSs as the top risks.  [34]  New regulations are proposed that would see the perpetrators of cyber attacks and the producers of related and malicious software prosecuted, and criminal sanctions increased to a maximum two-year sentence. European countries would also be obliged to respond quickly to requests for help when cyber attacks are perpetrated, and new pan-European criminal offences will be created for the illegal interception of information systems. Home affairs Commissioner Cecilia Malmstrà ¶m added that criminalizing the creation and selling of malicious software and improving European police cooperation would help Europe step up our efforts against cybercrime. ENISAs new mandate will let the agency organize pan-European cybersecurity exercises, public- private network resilience partnerships, and risk assessment and awareness campaigns. ENISAs funding will also be boosted, and its management board will get a stronger supervisory role. ENISAs mandate is also to be extended by five years to 2017. The new directive will also supersede a 2005 council framework decision on cybercrime because that previous regulation did not focus sufficiently on evolving threats- in particular, large-scale simultaneous attacks against information systems, such as Stuxnet, and the increasing criminal use of botnets. Stuxnet was recently used to attack Irans nuclear power infrastructure, and a single botnet, Rustock, is estimated to be responsible for two-fifths of the worlds spam.  [35]   Additionally, EU states are constrained by Directive 95/ 46/ EC, better known as the Data Protection Directive, which provides enormous protection for any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person. Compare this to the USA Patriot Act, which gives enormous leeway to US law enforcement and intelligence agencies to access electronic data held by US companies in order to investigate and deter terrorist activities. In June 2011 Gordon Frazer, managing director of Microsoft UK, set off a firestorm when he declared that European customer data stored on cloud computing services by companies with a US presence cannot be guaranteed the protections afforded under the Data Protection Directive, setting off a demand from some EU lawmakers to resolve this issue.  [36]   Germany In late February 2011 Germanys outgoing minister of the interior, Thomas de Maizià ¨re, unveiled the countrys Nationale Cyber-Sicherheitsstrategie (National Cyber Security Strategy).  [37]  To American eyes, the fact that it was the interior ministry, not the defense ministry, issuing the strategy is striking. It was no accident: this is by no means a defense document. The documents introduction notes that in Germany all players of social and economic life use the possibilities provided by cyberspace. As part of an increasingly interconnected world, the state, critical infrastructures, businesses and citizens in Germany depend on the reliable functioning of information and communication technology and the Internet. Among the threats listed: Malfunctioning IT products and components, the break-down of information infrastructures or serious cyber attacks may have a considerable negative impact on the performance of technology, businesses and the administration and hence on Germanys social lifelines. Contrast this with Lynns analogy of biplanes over France, and his pondering at what threshold do you consider something an attack? German security scholar Thomas Rid laments that the strategy is coming a bit late and that Germanys thinking lags that of the United States and the United Kingdom. Beyond that, he notes that the two agencies created to manage cyber issues are woefully understaffed and tasked with myriad responsibilities related tangentially at best to cyber security. And, according to a cyber kodex established in the new strategy, German interests in data security à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ would be pursued in international organizations such as the UN, the OSCE, the European Council, the OECD, and NATO- in that order.  [38]   United Kingdom as Outlier As is frequently the case on matters of international security, the United Kingdom is much more in line with its American cousin than its neighbors on the Continent. In an October 12, 2010, speech at Londons International Institute for Strategic Studies, Iain Lobban, director of GCHQ (the UKs National Security Agency analogue, responsible for signals intelligence) noted that his country combines the intelligence and information assurance missions in a single agency, an arrangement shared by only a few other countries, most notably the US. It gives us a richer view of vulnerabilities and threats than those who consider them purely from the point of view of defense.  [39]   He confessed to constant barrages of spam, worms, theft of intellectual property on a massive scale, some of it not just sensitive to the commercial enterprises in question but of national security concern too, and all manner of other attacks that have caused significant disruption to Government systems. Consequently, his government was looking to significantly increase its investment in the cyber realm even at a time when the global recession was forcing significant austerity in other departments, including in more traditional military assets.  [40]   Thomas Rid notes the sheer breadth of Lobbans focus: Cyber encompasses, for instance, more and more online government services (read: steadily increasing vulnerability); critical national infrastructure, publicly or privately run; online crime in all its facets; espionage (both industrial and governmental), and such things as the proper norms of behavior for responsible states.  [41]   The implications are vast, as Lobban hints and Rid explicates: partnerships of a new kind are needed to deal with cyber threats and risks. International partnerships, with like-minded countries that need to establish and maintain appropriate norms of behavior in crisis situations- and intersectoral partnerships, between government agencies and industry, especially the high-tech sector.  [42]   In his Munich Security Conference speech, Hague noted that we rely on computer networks for the water in our taps, the electricity in our kitchens, the sat navs in our cars, the running of trains, the storing of our medical records, the availability of food in our supermarkets and the flow of money into high street cash machines. Further, Many government services are now delivered via the internet, as is education in many classrooms. In the UK, 70 percent of younger internet users bank online and two thirds of all adults shop on the internet.  [43]   Given the new awareness of vulnerabilities and the degree of dependence, then, the United Kingdoms new National Security Strategy ranks cyber attack and cyber crime in our top five highest priority risks. This is not lip service. At the same time that the British military is suffering such severe cutbacks that the Royal Navy is reduced to sharing a single aircraft carrier with France, the current budget provided  £ 650 million of new funding for a national cyber-security program, which will improve our capabilities in cyber-space and pull together government efforts. As part of that effort, Hague said, We have established a new Ministerial Group on cyber security which I chair. And we have boosted the UKs cyber capabilities with the establishment of a new Defense Cyber Operations Group, incorporating cyber security into the mainstream of our defense planning and operation.  [44]   NATO Responses After months of study and debate the 2010 NATO Summit in Lisbon issued a new strategic concept on November 19, 2010. In it, cyber issues were officially recognized for the first time as a core alliance mission. Recognizing that cyber attacks are becoming more frequent, more organized and more costly in the damage that they inflict, NATO pledged to develop further our ability to prevent, detect, defend against and recover from cyber-attacks, including by using the NATO planning process to enhance and coordinate national cyber-defense capabilities, bringing all NATO bodies under centralized cyber protection, and better integrating NATO cyber awareness, warning and response with member nations.  [45]   This was followed in June 2011 by a revised NATO policy on cyber defense and a parallel cyber defense action plan. Combined, they offer a coordinated approach to cyber defense across the Alliance with a focus on preventing cyber threats and building resilience. Additionally, all NATO structures will be brought under centralized protection.  [46]   What practical actions will flow from these policy statements remains unclear, especially in an era of radically declining budgets. But they give an overview of what it terms NATOs principle cyber defense activities.  [47]   Coordinating and Advising on Cyber Defense The cyber-defense policy was implemented by NATOs political, military, and technical

Identity forming in adolescents Essay

We may understand this age group if we look at its place on the growth sequence of Erik Erikson. Notice how it is right next to the adult stage, the last step before being an adult. This is a time for adolescents to decide about their future line of work and think about starting their own families in a few years. One of the first things they must do is to start making their own decisions. For example, adolescents can begin to decide what to buy with their own money or who will be their friend. To do this they must put a little distance between themselves and their parents. This does not mean that parents cannot continue to look after them’ or help them when needed. Parents should, as much as possible, let them learn from the results of their actions. Adolescents also need to be around other adults, both male and female. These can be relatives, neighbors, or teachers. Of course, they should be positive role models. Teenagers can learn from them about things like how to fix the car, getting along with others, or ideas for future jobs. Finally, adoles ¬cents want to spend time alone. They might be planning the things they can do or will buy when they grow up. Identity forming may be an emotional turbulent phase of life in adolescents, due in part to the physical and mental changes they are experiencing. Adolescence is a stage, which is associated with considerable changes in self. Erik Erikson (1968) recognized adolescence as a major life stage for identity formation, and individual development within a social context. He argued that adolescents must receive community acceptance for their behavior. Erikson also spoke of the role of intergenerational socialization where society must provide for a mutual trustworthiness to assure self-chosen values and interests. Achieving a sense of identity is a fundamental task for adolescents. The clear sense of personal identity constitutes an aspect of optimal psychological functioning (Erikson, 1968). Adolescents face a range of developmental issues. Havighurst (1952) suggested that two important areas included work and relationships. Levinson (1978) focused on changing relationships and on exploration, while Erikson (1968) commented on intimacy and commitment to goals. Super (1963) indicated that exploring and crystallizing vocational choice are important to older adolescents and young adults. What seems evident is that older adolescents and young adults enter transitions with the goal of becoming independently functioning adults, as they strive to meet evolving personal and career related needs. Rapid and escalating changes in labor market and post-secondary educational opportunities mean that adolescents now are confronted with the challenge of meeting their personal and career needs when neither can offer certainty or a sense of personal control. According to Erikson, there are eight stages of human development. Each of the stage focuses on a different conflict that needs to be solved in order to develop successfully into the next stages of life. The idea is that if one stage is not resolved, one might have a difficulty to deal with the succeeding stages and the failure will come back at some point later in life. Puberty marks the beginning of stage five, identity versus role confusion. This stage occurs between ages twelve to eighteen. Erikson defined this stage as the time when adolescents develop a sense of self. They tend to question who they are and what they want to do with their lives. They will associate all of their experiences and differentiate their various roles up until that moment – dependent child, autonomy, initiative and achievement – into a secure individuality. If unresolved past crises have followed them into stage five, they will experience identity as role confusion. In other words, they will have no idea of who they are or what they would like to be. Peter Pan, the fairytale story of the childlike individual who refused to grow up, is a perfect example of this role confusion. These individuals are constantly searching to fill their emotional needs through relationships with others. Just as Peter Pan looked to Wendy for affection and nurturance, these individuals do the same because they lack self-soothing skills. This is what we sometimes call â€Å"low emotional quotients. † They often have very low self-confidence and they fear exploring new things and meeting new people. All of the child’s experiences were carried up to this transitional stage. The attachment and bonding that the infant learned in infancy during stage one provides security that is needed in this stage to be able to relate to the opposite sex. The ability to set boundaries and say no from stage two provides the structure needed to establish sexual boundaries. The sexual exploration experienced by the child during stage three and the reaction of parents will help determine a positive or negative self-perception regarding the body as good or bad. Stage four taught the youngster social and educational skills in grade school which will now determine the attitude towards future academic education and the social path to follow. Any of the previous tasks that were difficult to master will now affect the transition into adolescence. Since this is an awkward time of life, peer approval becomes even more important because it rests on the child’s entire self-esteem when being judged by others. Physical development occurs during this period when males experience voice changes, acne, and baby fat. Girls experience emotional difficulties and are most conscious of their body image. It is during this time that girls will develop eating disorders because they tend to be so critical of their bodies. This period is very similar to stage two when the young child learned how to say â€Å"no†. Rebelling is a large part of the adolescent’s life at this time when feelings of insecurity surface. During stage five â€Å"puppy love† occurs and everyone talks about who is dating whom. If the adolescent has had difficulty with trust and self-esteem issues prior to this stage, he may feel too shy to go steady and may isolate from others. This a time when adolescents have difficulty coping with everyday problems. If earlier tasks were successfully mastered then there will be little difficulty in coping with new problems that will arise. Peer Pressure During adolescence, it is more likely that an individual has trouble in deciding what to do with his life and what to do to â€Å"fit in† and be considered â€Å"cool†. One may act and think as if an adult but is not really considered as one in a real adult’s world. They will try so hard to separate themselves and be considered different from children but will somehow have difficulty proving it to people. Peer pressure comes in when an adolescent tries so hard to do what others do to make him feel like he belongs to a certain group. The feeling of belongingness is very important to an adolescent during this stage as it somehow gives him an identity derived from the group where he belongs. This identity may be â€Å"elite†, â€Å"intelligent†, â€Å"rebel†, â€Å"notorious†, â€Å"cool†, â€Å"popular† and so on. The image an adolescent exudes is as important as if that is what only matters. One may do things upon urging and taunting of his peers. Peer pressure may push one to do irrational things just to be able to be accepted by his colleagues. One episode of Nip Tuck about Matt circumcising himself – when his surgeon father would not do it – is an example of this. Another example is the latest craze among youths in South Korea. Since image and appearance plays a very important part in an adolescent’s life, one may go to extremes such as plastic surgery. Having bigger eyes is every girl’s dream in South Korea. Teenagers as young as 14 are doing it, and eye jobs have become a favorite high school graduation gift from proud parents (Ko 2002). Substance Abuse Puberty is the most critical stage in one’s life. This is the stage where adolescents sometimes withdraw from the family and turn to substance abuse to avoid the pain that accompanies the stress and anxiety that they experience. According to the Adolescent substance abuse knowledge base (1999): The primary factors that seem to affect increased or decreased drug use among teens are perceived risk, perceived social approval, and perceived availability. The more risky or less accepted a drug is thought to be; the less likely it will be used by teens. Perceived availability is often associated with overall social approval, and so, a drug that is readily available is considered socially acceptable and will likely increase in use. While these seem like common sense factors, how these perceptions are created is harder to understand. Parents may not realize just how easy it is for youths to get illicit drugs. They may not realize how young children are when they begin to experiment with alcohol and drugs. Statistics can alert parents to the need to communicate with their children about the dangers of substance abuse and help them develop strategies to cope with peer pressure. In the 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA), approximately 13 percent of youths aged 12 to 17 reported past month use of cigarettes, and more than 4 percent reported smoking daily during the past month of the same year. This is equivalent to approximately 3 million past month smokers, including almost 1 million daily smokers among youths. Approximately 16 percent of youths had used alcohol within the past month, including 10 percent reporting binge use – had five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days. Three percent reporting heavy alcohol use – had five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of five or more days in the past 30 days. The proportion translates to almost 4 million past month alcohol users, including almost 2. 5 million binge alcohol users, and 0. 6 million heavy alcohol users among youths. Media Influences There are so many television commercials nowadays showing an underage TV character commenting about drinking beer, using condoms, picking out cigarette brands and so on. Most of the parents change the channel when a character joked about â€Å"smoking a joint† or having a â€Å"one-night stand† when their child is around. Television, music, and advertisements flood children and youth with messages that may go against what that they have heard at home and school. Some messages teach children that alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drugs are dangerous; other messages make drugs and alcohol look cool and make you â€Å"fit in† in the society. Of the many factors influencing adolescents to begin, or not to begin smoking, drinking, and having sexual intercourse, a prominent and likely one is information conveyed via mass media. Despite restrictions on some mass media advertising for tobacco products or alcoholic beverages, even condom brands, young audiences still encounter substantial media content related to those across virtually all media channels. Society and social scientists alike have long assumed that there are direct effects, perhaps powerful effects, of media messages on individuals. Lay people and researchers make this assumption because it is intuitively reasonable: persuasive media messages surely influence youth. One thing that parents can do is to use messages from the media – TV, music, and ads – to talk with their children about tough issues like alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drugs. Talking during commercials can help promote a positive relationship between parents and their children. In many ways, these moments may be more effective than long, planned discussions – when these young adults are likely to tune out. The media’s influence on everyone, particularly on adolescents, is great. However, when properly guided by the parents, this particularly difficult stage of forming identity among youths may be lessened, as they understand how things are seen in the adult world and in another perspective other than theirs. CONCLUSION Developmentally, the young people were trying to meet personal and emotional needs, while in a state of flux and uncertainty in identity forming. It was apparent that a lack of progress in one area could have a negative influence on the other areas. Parental guidance, understanding and nurturing is of utmost importance on this most critical stage of a person’s life. In general, Erickson’s Theory of Human Development is widely accepted and plays a major role in all human and psychological development studies and theories. The best advice is to use the theory as a framework or map for understanding and identifying what issues or conflicts unresolved lead to current behavior and preparing for the stages to come. References Adolescent Substance Abuse Knowledge Base. (1999). Retrieved on November 29, 2006 from http://www. adolescent-substance-abuse. com/. â€Å"Erikson, Erik. † (2001). Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia. â€Å"Personal Identity. † (2001). Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia. Erikson, Erik H. (1963). Childhood and Society (2nd ed. ) New York: Norton. Erikson, Erik. H. (1968). Identity youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton. Havighurst, R. J. (1952). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McKay. Health and Human Services. (2001). HHS Report Shows Drug Use Rates Stable, Youth Tobacco Use Declines. United States Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved on December 1, 2006 from http://www. hhs. gov/news/press/2001pres/20011004a. html. Ko, Chisu (2002). Peer Pressure Plastics. TIME Asia magazine. Retrieved on November 29, 2006 from http://www. time. com/time/asia/magazine/article/0,13673,501020805-332098,00. html Levinson, D. (1978). The seasons of a man’s life. New York: Ballantine. Meyer, William J. (2001). â€Å"Developmental Psychology. † Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia Super, D. E. (1963). Career development: Essays in vocational development. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

Delivering Health Care At Americ A Systems Approach

Shi,L., Singh, D. A. (2015). Delivering Health Care in America: A Systems Approach (6th ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones Bartlett Learning. I choose the book because it serves as a back-bone towards the portfolio project. The book provides comprehensive knowledge about the creation of Medicare and Medicaid, and how the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act impacted these public health insurances. Chapter 3 gives a summary on how Medicare and Medicaid became a public health insurance – to serve the elderly population and then expanded to serve low-income families. Chapter 5 discusses â€Å"meaningful use† – Medicare and Medicaid started to offer financial incentives to health care organizations who have met a range of metrics such as†¦show more content†¦M. (2017). Medicaid Expansion Increased Coverage, Improved Affordability, And Reduced Psychological Distress for Low-Income Parents. Health Affairs, 36(5), 808-818. The article examines the Medicaid expansion and the impact it has on coverage, access and use, affordability, and the health status. The article examines data from the National Health Interview Survey from 2010-2015. The article also estimates the uninsured and under-insured rate if the certain states under went the Medicaid expansion. There was limited evidence on the impact of smaller states who expanded their Medicaid programs. I would agree with the article that decreased the psychological stress for low-income individuals. This is especially true for those individuals who are on the border of qualifying for Medicaid, but can’t afford private health insurances or their employers don’t offer health insurances because they are considered contractors or part time employees. Sommers, B. D., Kenney, G. M., Epstein, A. M. (2014). New Evidence on The Affordable Care Act: Coverage Impacts of Early Medicaid Expansions. Health Affairs, 33(1), 78-87. The article examines the states (California, Connecticut, Minnesota and Washington, D.C.) who decided to expand coverage earlier. It closely examines enrollment period between 2010 – 2014. Administrative records showed that there was an increased Medicaid coverage. The data also shows that there is an increase coverage in the population who had multiple

Essay about Unit 1 Cache Level 3 in Childcare and Education

E1/E2 - Three different types of settings which provide care and education for children in the Birmingham area Primary School A primary school is a statutory sector which is funded by the government through payment of taxes. By law, this service must be made available to young children in the UK. The targeted age of children that attend Primary school ranges from 5 to 11 years of age. A Primary school is a structured environment which helps support young children to develop and perfect basic skills needed in life; some of which are: reading, writing, and social skills. Primary School starts at 9am and ends at 3:30pm depending on a breakfast or after school clubs. Like any other organization, there is an organizational structure by†¦show more content†¦There are four main Legislation that deal with children’s welfare within the Birmingham City that supports the rights of children and these Legislations are: Children Act 1989- (Partnership with parents is crucial) The Children Act 1989 introduced â€Å"parental responsibility† not just parental rights so therefore statutory services like schools and nurseries must include â€Å"Partnership with Parents† Within my setting and by the Children Act 1989 that came in to force in England and Wales in 1991 it is important for the practitioner to be in partnership with parents. This is to ensure that the needs, interest and decisions of the child comes first and are being met. Also, it is by law that parents be responsible and knows everything about their child when they are away from them or home. This can be done by having a two way relationship with parents for example parent’s evenings, this is when staff discusses children’s progress open days so parents can come in be welcomed and look around their child’s school or nursery. There can be coffee mornings, sharing information or just giving feedback to parents when they pick their child up from school at the end of the day. The welfare of the child is paramount and that is why partnership with parents is crucial. Many schools and nurseries also have bi-lingual staff for children who do not speak English fluently so that the parents are fully aware of what is going on in a school atShow MoreRelatedLearning and Social Care Essay examples30870 Words   |  124 PagesCACHE Qualification Specification CACHE Level 3 Diploma for the Children and Young People’s Workforce (QCF) CACHE Level 3 Diploma for the Children and Young People’s Workforce (QCF) CACHE  © Copyright 2011 All rights reserved worldwide.    Reproduction by approved CACHE centres is permissible for internal use under the following conditions: CACHE has provided this Qualification Specification in Microsoft Word format to enable its Centres to use its content more flexibly within their ownRead MoreThe Purpose of This Report Is to Review and Evaluate the Principles Underpinning the Role of the Practitioner When Working with Children.3365 Words   |  14 PagesUnit 5 The purpose of this report is to review and evaluate the principles underpinning the role of the practitioner when working with children. 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Business Structure Of Australia, Particularly Company And...

Introduction This report will analyse the pros and cons of various business structures in Australia, particularly company and trust. Jack and Jill are running a business, which produces income of $350,000 in 2015 and 2016. This report will highlight tax calculation under Company and Trust structure. At the end of the report there will be a recommendation of which is the most effective business structure to minimise tax payable and how to boost superannuation for better retirement. Company Div. 1 – General, Corporation Act 2001 Unlike trust, a company is a separate legal entity in Australia. Generally, a company has the same rights as a natural person and can incur debt, sue and can also be sued. In this business structure, every†¦show more content†¦Company pat its own tax liability, and individual also pay tax liability based on their marginal tax rates (franking credit may available for dividend paid by the company to the shareholders). A company pays income tax at a flat rate 28.5% from 1 July 2015 on its taxable income (only applied for company that has turnover of $2 million or less)(Australian Taxation Office, 2015) The company owns the assets of a company and it is liable for any debts incurred. This is why this type of business structure appear to be a high-risk business ventures. Generally, the assets of the owner will not accessed to wipe off any company’s loan, debts or liabilities. However, there are some exceptions applied. Financial institutions have the right to require a personal guarantee against loans or overdrafts. A personal liability could be arisen if debts are caused by recklessness, negligence or fraudulence (Australian Taxation Office, 2015). Proprietary Company (Pty Ltd.) Section 45A Corporation Act 2001 A company can be formed as private, and it is known as ‘proprietary’. This type of companies is mostly family owned and does not listed on the Australian Stock exchange (ASX). A proprietary company has less than than 50 non-employee shareholders and. A proprietary company is not permitted to offer shares or securities to the public. It is required to have at least one director and shareholder, and at the director or the shareholder has to be ordinarily reside in Australia

Tv Advertising and Consumer Buying Behavior Free Essays

string(156) " to be used by the family, family communication structure and patterns and parents perception of children’s influence in family purchase decision making\." ABSTRACT Children are important in the family, they make a family complete and they influence a number of decisions made in the family. Children have occupied a big segment in the marketplace, there are more products produced and directed at them. The importance of children in purchase decision making has grown over the years. We will write a custom essay sample on Tv Advertising and Consumer Buying Behavior or any similar topic only for you Order Now They not only make purchase decisions for personal consumption but they also influence family purchase decision-making (Kaur and Singh, 2006). However, nearly all studies are based in the western context, like US and Europe. There are few studies focused on the African context, especially in Nigeria. As a result of this, it is important to examine how they influence the decision to purchase products for family consumption. The typology of family communication patterns and social power theory will be used for this study. The study will employ qualitative research using questionnaire to elicit detailed explanation of children’s influence in family purchase decision. Children between the ages 8-13 years are the focus of this research. Key words: family decision-making, children’s role in family decision making, typology of family communication patterns, social power theory. 1. 0 INTRODUCTION Children are important in the family, they make a family complete and they influence a number of decisions made in the family. Today children are not only passive observers but they have taken a considerable place in the families and have a significant influence on parental buying decisions and they have occupied a big segment in the marketplace. Children are consumers in their own right; there are more products produced and directed at them. Because of a growing awareness of the role children play in family decision making on family purchases other than toys and cereals, as well as a realisation that the influence of children in family decision making appears to have grown significantly over the past two decades (Sellers, 1989 as cited by Ekasasi, 2005), increasing attention is being given to children and their role in family decision making (Foxman and Patriya, 1989). There is no doubt that children establish a significant marketing zone and today they have a more important place in the society than their parents ever had. They are not only consumers but have emotional involvement direct or indirect on parents buying decisions. This trend of increased influence appears to emanate from a number of factors, including the greater affluence enjoyed by many households, higher consumer socialisation of children, product type, and the increasing independence given to children due to dual income families and higher divorce rates. Several researchers have also demonstrated how children have been â€Å"socialised to act as consumers† (Kaur and Singh, 2006). Family (parents and siblings), peers, and media are main socialising agents for children wherein family type, parental style and patterns of communication play important roles. However, most of the studies are based on the western context and there are very few studies focusing on Africa, particularly Nigeria due to which this research will be undertaken. As a result of this, it is important to examine how children influence the decision to purchase products in the family in Nigeria. 1. 2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Family as a consuming and decision making unit is a central phenomenon in marketing and consumer behaviour. Earlier, research had only focused on the husband and wife’s role where children’s role was ignored (Commuri and Gentry, 2000 as cited by Kaur and Singh, 2006). The importance of children in purchase decision making has grown over the years. It is seen that children not only influence family purchase decision but they also insist their parents purchase the products they desire (Kaur and Singh, 2006). Children’s influence differs depending on the product category and decision-making stage. Age and gender of the children also have a major impact on decision stage and the product category. The role that children play in family decision- making has directed the researchers to study the influence of children. Several researchers have also demonstrated how children have been â€Å"socialised to act as consumers† (Kaur and Singh, 2006). However, most of the studies are based on the western context and there are very few studies focusing on Africa, particularly Nigeria due to which this research will be undertaken. Since Nigerian society vastly differs from the west in terms of family composition, family type and structure, norms, values, and behaviour, it is important to understand children’s influence in the purchase decision making in families in the Nigerian context. The buying power of children in Nigeria will be different compared to the western countries, but still they play the key role in Nigerian families. Children influence family as well as individual purchase decisions. For this reason, detailed study will be done on children’s influence in family purchase decision in Nigeria. . 3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. Does parent-child communication affect the way a child contributes in family decision making process? 2. What strategies do children use in influencing family product purchase? 3. At what decision making process stage do children have more influence in the family? 4. How do parents respond to children’s attempt to influence decisions on products for family consum ption? 5. How frequently do children attempt to influence purchasing decisions on products for family consumption? 4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The primary objective of this study is to examine the roles performed by children in family purchase decisions with regard to children and family related products and to explore children’s influence in family decision making process in the Nigerian context. However, the specific objectives are: to understand the family communication structure and its influence on a child as a consumer; to examine the decision making process and the stage children have the most influence; and to examine parents’ perception of the role children play in family purchase decision-making. . 5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY This study will focus on children’s influence on decision making process in the family as it relates to the purchase of products to be used by the family, family communication structure and patterns and parents perception of children’s influence in family purchase decision making. You read "Tv Advertising and Consumer Buying Behavior" in category "Papers" 1. 6 SIGNIFICANC E OF THE STUDY Family is the basic unit where most individuals learn about product categories and how to consume it. So, understanding family buying behavior is very important. It used to be that husband and wife hold dominant influence in family decision-making process. However, now, their role is changing. Today, children’s role in family decision-making process is also significant. As children are an integral part of the marketplace, this study would help manufacturers of family products, marketers and advertisers to understand the place of a child in the family. Their influence relates to a wide variety of products needed by their family and not just to the items that directly relate to their need. This means that, to market successfully to the family, advertisers must understand children’s role in the decision making process in the family. The result of this research will aid advertisers to better position products to win the hearts of children who will eventually influence their parents buying decision. 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEW This section is to review what past studies has found on the influence children have on purchase decision in the family. 2. 1 FAMILY DECISION MAKING The family is a major influence in the consumer behavior process. As the basic group, which an individual belongs, the family provides early childhood learning about products and product categories, provides the opportunity for product exposure and repetition, and sets the consumption unit, the family members. As a major consumption unit the family is a prime target for most products and product categories (Schiffman Kanuk, 1983). Loudon Della (1993) as cited by Ekasasi (2005) define the family as a group of two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption and residing together as a household. A number of different types of family exist. The nuclear family consists of a husband, a wife, and their offspring. The extended family consists of the nuclear family plus other relatives, such as parents of the husband or wife. There is also the detached nuclear family structure which has characteristics as follows: free choice of mates, higher levels of divorce, increased residential mobility, entry of large numbers of women into the labour force, and lower responsibility of children to care for their parents in their old age (Mowen, 1995 in Ekasasi, 2005). During the course of everyday living, thousands of decisions are made by family members. The husband and wife are clearly the dominant influences in family decision-making. Most studies have focused on their role in decision-making and the dominance on their role in decision-making and the dominance of one or the other. The relative influence of the husband and the wife is likely to vary according to the type of product considered, the stage in decision making, the nature of purchase influence, and family characteristics (Assael 1992). In the process of family decision-making, there are three stages: initiation, make choice and final decision. Initiation is the process whereby a family member proposes a suggestion and ideas. Making choice is the second stage. Family members search and compare different alternatives. The final stage is the buying decision process. The child has been regarded as an initiator in family decision-making. When a particular product has been chosen as a candidate in the second stage, the product has greater chance to be sold. 2. 2 CHILDREN’S INFLUENCE IN FAMILY DECISION MAKING Family decision- making research was initially directed to spouses, however the role of children on decision making and negotiation strategies had become an important issue of study (Kaur and Singh, 2006). Children not only enjoy making regular consumption decisions with their parents but they also insist their parents to buy the products they desire. The family as a purchasing unit is a central phenomenon in consumer behavior. Researchers have studied how a family makes a purchase decision for many years but most of the ‘families’ studied only comprised the husband and wife (Davis, 1976 in Kaur and Singh, 2006). However, family decisions are influenced by every member of the family, which means how a family makes decisions will not be well examined unless every member’s influence is taken into account; children inclusive. Children’s influence in family purchase decisions and the spending power of children have increased over the last 40 years (Shoham and Dalakas, 2005). After Berey and Polly (1968) as cited by Kaur Singh (2006) detected child’s influence in family decision making, there was an increasing recognition of children’s important role with the increasing influence of children in family decision making. Usually, children influence parental purchases in the shopping environment, at home, in the car, at the movies, during television viewing, on vacation, at mealtime, even in church. The influence that children have on parental purchases is extensive and principally embraces the following areas (McNeal 1999): 1. Items for the children, including snacks, toys, consumer electronics, clothing, and hobbies equipment and supplies. 2. Items for the home, including furnishings, television sets, stereo systems, and foods and beverages for meals. 3. Non-household items for family members, including vacations, automobiles, clothing, restaurant meals, and recreation. In addition to these three groups, there are others that are more difficult to classify. They include family gifts to the children’s grandparents and family donations to charities. Also, children often influence the parent’s choice of stores and shopping centers. According to Ramzy, T. Ogden, R. Ogden and Zakaria (2012) children’s purchasing power can be direct, money controlled by the child, or indirect, relating to parental purchases that the child initiates or influences. Children influence family buying decisions in four different ways. First, children influence their parents to buy products for their individual preferences. Second, older children have their own pocket money and buy the products directly. Third, children influence their parents’ choice for family products for shared consumption. Lastly, children influence their parents’ own preferences. Children exert a certain influence on the overall decision process (Wut and Chou 2009). Geuens, Mast and Pelsmacker (2002) discovered that children can have active or passive influence on purchase decision. Active influence means that the child wants to influence purchase decisions in a direct way by recommending, hinting and/or asking for things (McNeal, 1999). Passive dictation, on the other hand, means that parents are influenced by what they experience their children prefer or need (Wells, 1965). A mother experiencing that her toddler enjoys a specific meal will be more increased to buy or cook this particular food again (Mehrotra and Torges, 1977 as cited by Wut and Chou, 2009). Passive influence is mostly unconscious and as a consequence difficult to observe and measure. Various researchers have revealed that a number of factors play a substantial role on children’s influence on parents buying decisions across different product categories. Berey Pollay (1968, as cited by Kaur Singh 2006) studied mother-child dyads in purchase of break- fast cereals and found that in most of the products parents are intermediary purchasing agents for children. In such situations children’s influence on parent’s purchase decisions is governed by two factors as children’s assertiveness and parent’s child centeredness. The study showed that more assertive the child or more children cantered the mother is, more probable the mother will buy the child desired brands. The research also revealed that mother’s act as gatekeepers and bought products that weighed high in nutrition. In general children exert more influence on products for which they are primary consumers (Lee and Beauty 2002). In recent years, family structures have changed considerably. We have single parents, two parents with one source of income, dual income families and higher divorce rates. Geuens, Mast and Pelsmacker (2002) examined the impact of new family structures (single versus one parent, two versus one income, high versus low working hours, small versus large size) on children’s influence on family purchase decision-making. The increase of children’s influence on parents buying decisions in most of the developed countries can be attributed to various reasons. First; increase in number of working couple resulting in to cash rich and time poor society and hence increasing the influence of children on parents; second, the shift in the family setup from joint families to nuclear families, allowing the influence of children on parents buying decisions; third, lesser number of children per family, resulting in increase in the buying power of each; fourth, the repeated exposure to media resulting in socialization of children which in turn result in to children influence on parents buying decisions etc. Wimalasiry (2004). Williams and Burns (2000) explained that changing social trends such as working mothers, decreased and delayed childbearing, increased divorce rates, and rapid maturation have given way to a formidable market force for children. They developed a scale based on social power theory to measure children’s direct influence attempts. The seven dimensions derived to represent direct influence attempt were ask nicely, bargain, show affection, just ask, beg and plead, show anger, and con. In this study, these dimensions will be utilized to measure the direct influence of children. . 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Two theories are proposed to guide this study. They are the typology of family communication patterns and social power theory. 2. 3. 1 TYPOLOGY OF FAMILY COMMUNICATION PATTERNS The typology of parent-child communication structures and patterns was developed by McLeod and Chaffee (1972) and this typology utilizes Newcomb’s (1953) co-orientation model. Together, the two dimensio ns of family communication structure yielded a four-fold typology of family communication patterns: laissez-faire, protective, pluralistic, and consensual. McLeod and Chaffee (1972) identified two dimensions of parent-child communications dimensions. These dimensions are the degree of social orientation and degree of concept orientation. Social Orientation: The communications in families with a high social orientation are designed to produce obedience from the child and foster family harmony. Concept Orientation: The communications in families with a high concept orientation are designed to encourage openness and foster an independent outlook. Laissez-faire families emphasize neither of the two dimensions and there is little communication between parents and children. Protective families emphasize the socio-orientation dimension, stressing obedience and social harmony, and are not concerned with conceptual matters. Conversely, Pluralistic families tend to stress the concept-orientation dimension, with an emphasis being placed on mutuality of respects and interest. Children are encouraged to explore new ideas and to express them openly without fear of reprisal. Finally, consensual families stress both the socio- and concept orientation dimensions, and children are encouraged to explore the world about them but to do so without disrupting the family’s established internal social harmony. A parent with a high socio-orientation believes that children should respect him/her, should suppress opinions on areas not pertaining to them, that children should avoid disagreements with parents and be obedient (Moschis Moore 1978). Parents with this type of communication orientation tend to control their child’s consumption-related learning (Moschis Moore 1979). A high concept-orientation means that parents encourage children to evaluate different alternatives when making decisions. Children in this orientation are allowed to discuss disagreements with parents and to develop their own consumer skills. They are also asked by their parents about purchase decisions even if the product is not directly for the child. According to Moschis and Mitchell (1986), children from families with a high social orientation are less likely to be involved in family decisions and less likely to make consumption-related decisions for themselves. Conversely, children from families with a high concept orientation are likely to have higher product knowledge, better able to manage a family budget and have a higher regard for their parents’ opinions. 2. 3. 2 SOCIAL POWER THEORY Social power theory examines power bases in social interactions. The concept of social power was initially introduced by Lewin (1951) and later developed theoretically by French and Raven (1959). Social power theory is an appropriate theoretical framework from which to study children’s direct influence attempts for several reasons. First, social power theory identifies the bases of power which are present in social interactions. These sources of power may include expertise, reward power, referent power, legitimate power, and coercion. These five bases are considered by French and Raven (1959) to be the most important resources utilized by a person, but not an all-inclusive list of potential resources. Further, social power theory suggests that a person will make an assessment of his or her resources and choose an influence attempt that is consistent with his or her sources of social power. In addition, the theory suggests that these power bases may be utilized in two ways: active (i. e. , direct) or passive (i. e. , indirect). When the utilization of power to influence is active, or the result of an intentional act, a direct influence attempt is exerted. In relation to influence and power evidence exists that children exert varying degrees of influence on the family decision-making process. This influence varies by product, decision stage, child, parental and family characteristics but are not properly researched. Social power theory is useful in explaining differences in children’s influence on purchases and distinguishes between influence derived from active and passive power, compatible with direct and indirect influence. Power bases pertinent to exercising influence include: expert (e. g. children possess detailed knowledge about toys, games etc. ; legitimate (e. g. children and products they consume including food, toys and clothing); referent (identifying with peers); reward (children exhibiting good behaviour) and coercive power (e. g. children threatening negative or bothersome behaviour, complaining or even pestering) (Flurry and Burns, 2005). Furthermore, social power theory further suggests the five power bases may be utilised in two ways: actively and passively. Power used to influence is an active and intentional action; passive, when the mere presence of power is influential. Both contribute to a person’s potential to direct a preferential outcome. 3. 0 METHODOLOGY This section comprises of the research design, population, sample size, sampling technique, research instrument to be employed, method of data collection and analysis to be employed. 3. 1 RESEARCH DESIGN This study will employ descriptive survey because the role children play in influencing family purchase decision will be described. It will also be a cross-sectional study as children’s influence will be examined from the children as well as the parents’ point of view. Since the research aims at understanding children’s influence in family purchase decision, the views of the children will be essential for this study and to get a balanced view, the views of the parents will also be important, especially mothers. This study will employ questionnaire and in-depth interview as methods of collecting primary data. 3. 2 POPULATION The study will be located in Ibadan metropolis in Oyo State, South West Nigeria. Ibadan is majorly populated by the Yoruba people, but its population has always been ethnically mixed and is becoming increasingly so. Ibadan houses one of Africa’s premier universities, the University of Ibadan, which lends its economy a significant intellectual, professional and artistic profile. There are 11 Local Governments in Ibadan metropolitan area consisting of 5 urban local governments in the city and 6 semi-urban local governments. This study will be limited to one urban and one semi-urban local government which are Ibadan North-West and Ido local government respectively. One government-owned secondary school; one private secondary school will be randomly selected from the list of Secondary Schools in the two local government areas for this study. . 3 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE A multi – stage sampling procedure will be used for this study. At first six schools will be randomly selected from a list of public and private secondary schools in Ibadan North West as well as in Ido Local Government Areas of Oyo State respectively. Then, the balloting system will be used to choose one schoo l for the public secondary school and for the private secondary school in the two local government areas respectively. Going by the assumption that 25 pupils are meant to be in a class, a class of J. S. S 1, 2 and 3 students of a school will be the respondents for this study. This will be 75 respondents per school, making the number of respondents to be 150 altogether. The J. S. S 1, 2 and J. S. S 3 students will be used because they fall within the age range that this study would be focusing on, which is between the ages of 8 and 13 and also because they should be more matured than those in the primary school that also falls within this age range.. 3. 4 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT Questionnaire and in-depth interview will be used for this study. The questionnaire will be in two sections; the first section will be addressed to the children while the second section will be filled by the parents, specifically mothers. This section is specifically to ask the mother to indicate demographic characteristics of the child; including his/her birthday and sex of the child and to find out how they perceive the role their children play in family purchase decision. This information will be used to match the parent’s responses to responses given by the child. The questionnaire will be given to respondents to take home to their parents. The interview will be for the teachers of the respective schools to be used to ascertain the schools’ demography. 3. 5 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION This will involve qualitative method. The headteachers or class teachers of these four schools will be requested to distribute the questionnaires to a class of J. S. S 1, 2 and J. S. S 3 students at the schools. 3. 6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The method of data analysis will involve quantitative and qualitative methods. For quantitative method, univariate and bivariate tabulation methods will be used for the analysis. REFERENCES Ali A. and Batra D. K. (2011) Children influence on parents buying decisions in Delhi (India) European Journal of Business and Management (Online) Vol. 3 (11), 19-28 Davis, H. L. 1976), Decision making within the household, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 2, March, 241-60. Ekasasi S. R. (2005) The Role of Children in Family Decision Making: A Theoretical Review, Edisi Khusus Jsb on Marketing, Volume 3, 25 – 41 Foxman E and Patriya S. T. (1989) Adolescents and Mothers Perceptions of Relative Influence in Family Decisions: Patterns of Agreement and Disagreement Advances in Consumer Research , 449-453. Geuens M. , Mast G. and Pelsmacker P. (2002) Children’s Influence on Family Purchase Behavior: The Role of Family Structure, Asia Pacific Advances in Consumer Research Volume 5, 130-135 Hall J, Shaw M, Johnson M. and Oppenheim P. (1995) Influence of Children on Family Consumer Decision-Making, European Advances in Consumer Research Volume 2, 45-53 Kaur, P and Singh, R (2006) „Children In Family Purchase Decision Making In India and the West: A Review. Academy of Marketing Science Review Vol. 2006 (8), 1-30 Lee, C. K. C. and Beatty, S. E (2002) Family Structure and Influence in Family Decision Making Journal of Consumer Marketing Vol. 19 (1), 4-41 McNeal, J. ; Ji, M. (1999) Chinese children as consumers: an analysis of their new product information sources Journal of Consumer Marketing Vol. 6(4), 345-364 Mikkelsen M. R. and Norgaard M. K (2012) Children’s Influence on Family Decision-Making in Food Buying and Consumption International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Vol. 2 (5), 1-23 Moschis G. P, Prahasto A. E and Mitchell L. G (1986) Family Communication Influences on the Development of Consumer Behavior: Some Additional Findings Advances in Consu mer Research Volume 13, 365-369 Moschis G. P and Mitchell L. G (1986) Television Advertising and Interpersonal Influences on Teenagers’ Participation in Family Consumer Decisions Advances in Consumer Research Volume 13, 181-186 Nash C. (2009) The Parent Child Purchase Relationship Academy of Marketing Science Review Volume 8, 1-30 North E. J. and Kotze T. 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(2009) Family Communication Patterns and Children’s influence on Family Decision Making ANZMAC, 1-7 How to cite Tv Advertising and Consumer Buying Behavior, Papers

Renaissance man and Renaissance women Essay Example For Students

Renaissance man and Renaissance women Essay Between the 1300s and 1500s, Europe experienced a period of cultural rebirth known as the Renaissance, marking the transition from medieval times to modern times. The Renaissance brought new importance to individual expression, self-consciousness and worldly experience. The Renaissance man and woman characterized the Renaissance ideals. A renaissance man was a well- educated gentleman who had cultural grace, courage and who understood the arts and sciences. On the other hand, a Renaissance woman was supposed to marry well, be loyal to her husband and give birth to boys. The most famous Renaissance man was Leonardo Da Vinci who was born on April 15th 1452 in Florence, Italy. Da Vinci was truly recognized by many to be a Renaissance child and later a Renaissance man because of his many talents. He revealed his artistic talents at the age of 17 when he was hired as a studio boy to Andrea Del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day. In Verrocchio workshop, Da Vinci was introduced to main techniques, from the painting of altarpieces and panel pictures to the creation of large sculptural projects in marble and bronze. His Last Supper and Mona Lisaare among the most widely popular and influential paintings of the Renaissance. At the same time his scientific interests deepened: his concern with anatomy led him to perform dissections. After a period of time, Da Vincis scientific research began to dominate his other activities so much that his artistic gifts were directed toward scientific illustration. His sketched details drawings of bone and muscle structure have helped doctors to understand completely the layout of the muscles and bones structures. As for Renaissance women, two of them made history: Isabella dEste and Catherine de Medici. Isabella dEste was born in 1474. At the age of 16 she married Francesco Gonzaga, Prince of Mantua. She was able to speak Greek and Latin as well as play the lute, sing and dance and debate with people much older than her after the death of her husband, Isabella became chief of state in Mantua. She also founded a school for young women and set artistic fashions and standards. Catherine de Medici was another Renaissance woman born in 1519. Nuns raised her when her parents died and had an arrangement marriage by her uncle the Pope. Three of her sons became kings under her influence. Catherine had a great interest in architecture when she built the new wing of the Louvre Museum, the construction of the Tuilleries Gardens and the building of the Chateau Monceau. In conclusion, Leonardo da Vinci was one of the most famous from the Renaissance period and is the example of the Renaissance man because he was a master of both the world of arts as well as the world of science. Isabella dEste during her rule set an example for women to break away from the traditional role of what women were supposed to be like during the Renaissance period. By doing this and many other things she was known as the First Lady of the Renaissance. Catherine was a great patron of arts and being this, she helped the Renaissance flourish. (576 words)